Original Article Published on 14 Mar, 2024

Moral Internalisation Influences the Attentional Bias to Smoking and Non-Smoking Stimuli in Malaysian Youth

Internalisation Influences the Attentional Bias
Vol. 19 No. 1 : 2024 (173-191)

Shaharum MH Shaharum MH
Yusoff N Yusoff N
Reza F Reza F
Ismail R Ismail R
Kueh YC Kueh YC
Azman A Azman A

Abstract
The youth age group is a phase of life associated with risk-taking behaviour and challenging moral issues.  This study aimed to provide electrophysiological evidence that could explain the interaction between attentional bias towards the health-risk of smoking and non-health risk behaviour stimuli as influenced by various levels of moral identity. Seventy eight eligible subjects (mean age of 22 + 2.1 years old) participated in the event-related potential session. Attentional bias towards the visual stimuli was determined by recording the N200 brain potential while participants emotionally reacted to the target (health-risk of smoking, non-health risk behaviour) and non-target (neutral) stimuli. N200 was extracted and analysed by using a mixed-design analysis of variance with target and non-target stimuli as within subject effects and types of moral identity as between subject effects. Attentional bias towards visual stimuli interacted significantly with the different levels of moral identity in the central part of the brain. High internalisation trait indicated shorter N200 latency when reacted to the health-risk of smoking stimuli than the non-health risk behaviour stimuli. An important insight regarding to moral psychology in relation to youth health risk behaviour was highlighted to focus for the development of the health promotion and education in future.
Keywords : Attentional bias, moral identity, N200 Evoke potentials, smoking behaviour,
Abstrak
Kelompok belia muda merupakan satu fasa pertumbuhan emosi dan kognitif yang kompleks serta dicabar dengan isu-isu moral dan tingkahlaku berisiko. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengemukakan bukti elektrofisiologi pada bahagian otak yang spesifik untuk menjelaskan tentang interaksi di antara bias perhatian terhadap imej tingkahlaku berisiko (merokok) dan tingkah laku bukan berisiko, yang boleh dipengaruhi oleh faktor kepelbagaian identiti moral. Seramai 78 subjek (Min umur 22 + 2.1 tahun) terlibat dengan sesi Event Related Potential (ERP) yang dijalankan di Makmal Neurosains. Bias perhatian terhadap rangsangan visual ditentukan melalui gelombang otak N200 yang diukur semasa subjek memberi maklumbalas terhadap rangsangan imej target (iaitu tingkahlaku berisiko merokok  dan tingkahlaku bukan berisiko) dan bukan target (neutral). Komponen N200 diekstrak dan dianalisis dengan analisa varians bercampur (imej target dan bukan target sebagai kesan dalaman subjek; manakala identiti moral sebagai kesan antara subjek). Bias perhatian terhadap rangsangan visual berinteraksi secara signifikan dengan kepelbagaian identiti moral terutama pada bahagian tengah otak. Ciri internalisasi yang tinggi dan simbolisasi yang rendah serta internalisasi dan simbolisasi yang tinggi, menunjukkan kependaman N200 yang pendek apabila memberi bertindak balas terhadap imej tingkahlaku berisiko (merokok) berbanding imej tingkahlaku bukan berisiko. Ciri internalisasi mempengaruhi bias perhatian terhadap tingkahlaku berisiko (merokok) yang ditunjukkan oleh pengaktifan neural N200 pada bahagian tengah otak. Kepentingan hubungkait aspek moral psikologi dengan tingkahlaku berisiko di kalangan belia muda perlu difokuskan dengan lebih terperinci dalam membangunkan program promosi kesihatan dan pendidikan pada masa hadapan.
Kata Kunci : Bias perhatian, identiti moral, rangsangan potensi N200, tingkahlaku merokok,

Correspondance Address
Nasir Yusoff. Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian Kelantan Malaysia. Tel: +6017 9788554 Email: nasirff@usm.my

References
Aquino, K., Reed, A. 2002. The self-importance of moral identity. J Pers Soc Psychol 83(6): 1423-40.

Balconi, M., Vanutelli, M.E. 2016. Hemodynamic (fNIRS) and EEG (N200) correlates of emotional inter-species interactions modulated by visual and auditory stimulation. Scientific Reports 6(1): 23083

Buzzell, G.A., Fedota, J.R., Roberts, D.M., McDonald, C.G. 2014. The N2 ERP component as an index of impaired cognitive control in smokers. Neurosci Lett 563: 61-5.

Cao, D., Li, Y., Niznikiewicz, M.A. 2020. Neural characteristics of cognitive reappraisal success and failure: An ERP study. Brain Behav 10(4): 1033-41.

Conger, J.J. 1984. Adolescence and youth: Psychological development in a changing world. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row

Cowell, J.M., Decety, J. 2015. Precursors to morality in development as a complex interplay between neural, socioenvironmental, and behavioural facets. PNAS 112(41): 12657-62.

Davis, L. 1992. Instrument review: Getting the most from your panel of experts. Appl Nurs Res 5: 194-7.

DeCostera, J., Galluccib, M., Iselinc, A.R. 2011. Best practices for using median splits, artificial categorization, and their continuous alternatives. J Exp Psychopathol 2(2): 197-209

Dellantonio, S., Job, R. 2000. Moral intuitions vs. moral reasoning. A philosophical analysis of the explanatory models intuitionism relies on. In Philosophy and Cognitive Science. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics. Vol 2. Edited by Magnani L & Li P. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 732-86

Ding, Y., Guo, F., Hu, M.C., Cao, Y.Q. 2017. Using event related potentials to investigate visual aesthetic perception of product appearance. Hum Factors Ergon Manuf 27(5): 223-32.

Domino, E.F. 2003. Effects of tobacco smoking on electroencephalographic, auditory evoked and event related potentials. Brain Cogn 53(1): 66-74.

Dong, G., Yang, L., Hu, Y., Jiang, Y. 2009. Is N2 associated with successful suppression of behavior responses in impulse control processes? Neuroreport 20(6): 537-42

Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychol Rev 108(4): 814-34.

Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. 2013. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. New Jersey, USA: Pearson Prentice Hall

Hardy, S.A., Francis, S.W., Zamboanga, B.L., Kim, S.Y., Anderson, S.G., Forthun, L.F. 2013. The roles of identity formation and moral identity in college student mental health, health-risk behaviours, and psychological well-being. J Clin Psychol 69(4): 364-82.

Hong, B., Guo, F., Liu, T., Gao, X., Gao, S. 2009. N200-speller using motion-onset visual response. Clin Neurophysiol 120(9): 1658-66

Institute of Public Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia 2021. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Health Malaysia. http://iku.moh.gov.my/nhms-2006 [20 January 2023]

Jiang, S., Peng, M., Wang, X. 2020. Different influences of moral violation with and without physical impurity on face processing: An event-related potentials study. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0243929.

Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W.A., Shanklin, S.L., Flint, K.H., Queen, B. 2018. Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance - United States, 2017. MMWR Surveill Summ 67(8): 1-114.

Kanske, P., Kotz, S.A. 2010. Modulation of early conflict processing: N200 responses to emotional words in a flanker task. Neuropsychologia 48(12): 3661-4.

Katsuki, F., Constantinidis, C. 2014. Bottom-up and top-down attention: Different processes and overlapping neural systems. Neuroscientist 20(5): 509-21

Kaye, S.A., White, M.J., Lewis, I. 2018. Young females’ attention toward road safety images: An ERP study of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory. Traffic Inj Prev 19(2): 201-6.

Kunkel, A., Filik, R., Mackenzie, I.G., Leuthold, H. 2018. Task-dependent evaluative processing of moral and emotional content during comprehension: An ERP study. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 18(2): 389-409.

Li, X., Li, W., Chen, H., Cao, N., Zhao B. 2021. Cigarette-specific disgust aroused by smoking warning images strengthens smokers’ inhibitory control under smoking-related background in Go/NoGo task. Psychopharmacology 238(10): 2827-38.

Liu, C., Dong, F., Li, Y., Ren, Y., Xie, D., Wang, X., Xue, T., Zhang, M., Ren, G., von Deneen, K.M., Yuan, K., Yu, D. 2019. 12 h abstinence-induced erp changes in young smokers: electrophysiological evidence from a go/nogo study. Front Psychol 10: 1814.

Luijten, M., Kleinjan, M., Franken, I.H. 2016. Event-related potentials reflecting smoking cue reactivity and cognitive control as predictors of smoking relapse and resumption. Psychopharmacology 233(15-16): 2857-68.

Luijten, M., Little, M., Franken, I.H. 2011. Deficits in inhibitory control in smokers during a Go/NoGo task: An investigation using event-related brain potentials. PLoS One 6(4): e18898.

Ma, Q., Hu, L., Wang, X. 2015. Emotion and novelty processing in an implicit aesthetic experience of architectures: Evidence from an event-related potential study. Neuroreport 26(5): 279-84.

Moreno, M., Estevez, A.F., Zaldivar, F., Montes, J.M., Gutiérrez-Ferre, V.E., Esteban, L. Sánchez-Santed, F., Flores, P. 2012. Impulsivity differences in recreational cannabis users and binge drinkers in a university population. Drug Alcohol Depend 124(3): 355-62.

Nazary, A.A., Ahmadi, F., Vaismoradi, M., Kaviani, K., Arezomandi, M., Faghihzadeh, S. 2010. Smoking among male medical sciences students in Semnan, Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterr Health J 16(2): 156-61. 

Pegg, S., Dickey, L., Mumper, E., Kessel, E., Klein, D.N., Kujawa, A. 2019. Stability and change in emotional processing across development: A 6-year longitudinal investigation using event-related potentials. Psychophysiology 56(11): e13438.

Pletti, C., Decety, J., Paulus, M. 2022. Neural processing of moral content reflects moral identity in 10-year-old children. Dev Sci 25(4): e13232.

Potts, G.F., Bloom, E.L., Evans, D.E., Drobes, D.J. 2014. Neural reward and punishment sensitivity in cigarette smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend 144: 245-53.

Rass, O., Fridberg, D.J., O’Donnell, B.F. 2014. Neural correlates of performance monitoring in daily and intermittent smokers. Clin Neurophysiol 125(7): 1417-26.

Sanci, L., Webb, M., Hocking, J. 2018. Risk-taking behaviour in adolescents. Aust J Gen Pract 47(12): 829-34.

Schindler, S., Straube, T. 2020. Selective visual attention to emotional pictures: Interactions of task-relevance and emotion are restricted to the late positive potential. Psychophysiology 57(9): 1-14.

Schwartz, S.J., Forthun, L.F., Ravert, R.D., Zamboanga, B.L., Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Filton, B.J., Kim, S.Y., Rodriguez, L., Weisskirch, R.S., Vernon, M., Shneyderman, Y., Williams, M.K., Agocha, V.B., Hudson, M. 2010. Identity consolidation and health risk behaviours in college students. Am J Health Behav 34(2): 214-24

Tenssay, F., Wang, H. 2019. Analysis of EEG signals during visual processing: An ERP Study. In IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing, Communications and Computing (ICSPCC): 16 Jan2020; IEEE: Dalian, China.

van Tricht, M.J., Harmsen, E.C., Koelman, J.H., Bour, L.J., van Amelsvoort, T.A., Linszen, D.H. et al. 2013. Effects of cannabis use on event related potentials in subjects at ultra-high risk for psychosis and healthy controls. Int J Psychophysiol 88(2): 149-56

Watson, T.D., Newton-Mora, M., Pirkle, J. 2016. Event-related potential correlates of processing alcohol-related pictures in young adult binge drinkers. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 42(1): 77-87.

Watson, T.D., Sweeney, J.F., Louis, H. 2014. Neurocognitive, psychological and behavioural correlates of binge drinking and use of alcohol with caffeinated beverages in college-aged adults. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 40(1): 58-66.

Weiss, B., Nguyen, T., Trung, L., Ngo, V., Lau, A. 2019. Tobacco smoking and antisocial deviance among Vietnamese, Vietnamese-American, and European-American adolescents. J Abnorm Child Psychol 47(1): 59-69.

Xu, H., Gu, L., Zhang, S., Wu, Y., Wei, X., Wang, C. et al. 2022. N200 and P300 component changes in Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis. Neurol Sci 43(12): 6719-30.

Yang, Q., Li, A., Xiao, X., Zhang, Y., Tian, X. 2014. Dissociation between morality and disgust: An event-related potential study. Int J Psychophysiol 94(1): 84-91.

Yin, J., Yuan, K., Feng, D., Cheng, J., Li, Y., Cai, C., Bi, Y., Sha, S., Shen, X., Zhang, B., Xue, T., Qin, W., Yu, D., Lu, X., Tian, J. 2016. Inhibition control impairments in adolescent smokers: Electrophysiological evidence from a Go/NoGo study. Brain Imaging Behav 10(2): 497-505

Yusoff, N., Shaharum, M.H., Kueh, Y.C. 2022. Malay version of moral identity scale: A cross-cultural validation in malaysian youth. IIUM Med J Malays 21(1): 854-9

Zhang, X., Guo, Q., Zhang, Y., Lou, L., Ding, D. 2015. Different timing features in brain processing of core and moral disgust pictures: An event-related potentials study. PLoS ONE 10(5): 1-15.
Correspondance Address

Aquino, K., Reed, A. 2002. The self-importance of moral identity. J Pers Soc Psychol 83(6): 1423-40.

Balconi, M., Vanutelli, M.E. 2016. Hemodynamic (fNIRS) and EEG (N200) correlates of emotional inter-species interactions modulated by visual and auditory stimulation. Scientific Reports 6(1): 23083

Buzzell, G.A., Fedota, J.R., Roberts, D.M., McDonald, C.G. 2014. The N2 ERP component as an index of impaired cognitive control in smokers. Neurosci Lett 563: 61-5.

Cao, D., Li, Y., Niznikiewicz, M.A. 2020. Neural characteristics of cognitive reappraisal success and failure: An ERP study. Brain Behav 10(4): 1033-41.

Conger, J.J. 1984. Adolescence and youth: Psychological development in a changing world. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row

Cowell, J.M., Decety, J. 2015. Precursors to morality in development as a complex interplay between neural, socioenvironmental, and behavioural facets. PNAS 112(41): 12657-62.

Davis, L. 1992. Instrument review: Getting the most from your panel of experts. Appl Nurs Res 5: 194-7.

DeCostera, J., Galluccib, M., Iselinc, A.R. 2011. Best practices for using median splits, artificial categorization, and their continuous alternatives. J Exp Psychopathol 2(2): 197-209

Dellantonio, S., Job, R. 2000. Moral intuitions vs. moral reasoning. A philosophical analysis of the explanatory models intuitionism relies on. In Philosophy and Cognitive Science. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics. Vol 2. Edited by Magnani L & Li P. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 732-86

Ding, Y., Guo, F., Hu, M.C., Cao, Y.Q. 2017. Using event related potentials to investigate visual aesthetic perception of product appearance. Hum Factors Ergon Manuf 27(5): 223-32.

Domino, E.F. 2003. Effects of tobacco smoking on electroencephalographic, auditory evoked and event related potentials. Brain Cogn 53(1): 66-74.

Dong, G., Yang, L., Hu, Y., Jiang, Y. 2009. Is N2 associated with successful suppression of behavior responses in impulse control processes? Neuroreport 20(6): 537-42

Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychol Rev 108(4): 814-34.

Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. 2013. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. New Jersey, USA: Pearson Prentice Hall

Hardy, S.A., Francis, S.W., Zamboanga, B.L., Kim, S.Y., Anderson, S.G., Forthun, L.F. 2013. The roles of identity formation and moral identity in college student mental health, health-risk behaviours, and psychological well-being. J Clin Psychol 69(4): 364-82.

Hong, B., Guo, F., Liu, T., Gao, X., Gao, S. 2009. N200-speller using motion-onset visual response. Clin Neurophysiol 120(9): 1658-66

Institute of Public Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia 2021. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Health Malaysia. http://iku.moh.gov.my/nhms-2006 [20 January 2023]

Jiang, S., Peng, M., Wang, X. 2020. Different influences of moral violation with and without physical impurity on face processing: An event-related potentials study. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0243929.

Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W.A., Shanklin, S.L., Flint, K.H., Queen, B. 2018. Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance - United States, 2017. MMWR Surveill Summ 67(8): 1-114.

Kanske, P., Kotz, S.A. 2010. Modulation of early conflict processing: N200 responses to emotional words in a flanker task. Neuropsychologia 48(12): 3661-4.

Katsuki, F., Constantinidis, C. 2014. Bottom-up and top-down attention: Different processes and overlapping neural systems. Neuroscientist 20(5): 509-21

Kaye, S.A., White, M.J., Lewis, I. 2018. Young females’ attention toward road safety images: An ERP study of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory. Traffic Inj Prev 19(2): 201-6.

Kunkel, A., Filik, R., Mackenzie, I.G., Leuthold, H. 2018. Task-dependent evaluative processing of moral and emotional content during comprehension: An ERP study. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 18(2): 389-409.

Li, X., Li, W., Chen, H., Cao, N., Zhao B. 2021. Cigarette-specific disgust aroused by smoking warning images strengthens smokers’ inhibitory control under smoking-related background in Go/NoGo task. Psychopharmacology 238(10): 2827-38.

Liu, C., Dong, F., Li, Y., Ren, Y., Xie, D., Wang, X., Xue, T., Zhang, M., Ren, G., von Deneen, K.M., Yuan, K., Yu, D. 2019. 12 h abstinence-induced erp changes in young smokers: electrophysiological evidence from a go/nogo study. Front Psychol 10: 1814.

Luijten, M., Kleinjan, M., Franken, I.H. 2016. Event-related potentials reflecting smoking cue reactivity and cognitive control as predictors of smoking relapse and resumption. Psychopharmacology 233(15-16): 2857-68.

Luijten, M., Little, M., Franken, I.H. 2011. Deficits in inhibitory control in smokers during a Go/NoGo task: An investigation using event-related brain potentials. PLoS One 6(4): e18898.

Ma, Q., Hu, L., Wang, X. 2015. Emotion and novelty processing in an implicit aesthetic experience of architectures: Evidence from an event-related potential study. Neuroreport 26(5): 279-84.

Moreno, M., Estevez, A.F., Zaldivar, F., Montes, J.M., Gutiérrez-Ferre, V.E., Esteban, L. Sánchez-Santed, F., Flores, P. 2012. Impulsivity differences in recreational cannabis users and binge drinkers in a university population. Drug Alcohol Depend 124(3): 355-62.

Nazary, A.A., Ahmadi, F., Vaismoradi, M., Kaviani, K., Arezomandi, M., Faghihzadeh, S. 2010. Smoking among male medical sciences students in Semnan, Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterr Health J 16(2): 156-61. 

Pegg, S., Dickey, L., Mumper, E., Kessel, E., Klein, D.N., Kujawa, A. 2019. Stability and change in emotional processing across development: A 6-year longitudinal investigation using event-related potentials. Psychophysiology 56(11): e13438.

Pletti, C., Decety, J., Paulus, M. 2022. Neural processing of moral content reflects moral identity in 10-year-old children. Dev Sci 25(4): e13232.

Potts, G.F., Bloom, E.L., Evans, D.E., Drobes, D.J. 2014. Neural reward and punishment sensitivity in cigarette smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend 144: 245-53.

Rass, O., Fridberg, D.J., O’Donnell, B.F. 2014. Neural correlates of performance monitoring in daily and intermittent smokers. Clin Neurophysiol 125(7): 1417-26.

Sanci, L., Webb, M., Hocking, J. 2018. Risk-taking behaviour in adolescents. Aust J Gen Pract 47(12): 829-34.

Schindler, S., Straube, T. 2020. Selective visual attention to emotional pictures: Interactions of task-relevance and emotion are restricted to the late positive potential. Psychophysiology 57(9): 1-14.

Schwartz, S.J., Forthun, L.F., Ravert, R.D., Zamboanga, B.L., Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Filton, B.J., Kim, S.Y., Rodriguez, L., Weisskirch, R.S., Vernon, M., Shneyderman, Y., Williams, M.K., Agocha, V.B., Hudson, M. 2010. Identity consolidation and health risk behaviours in college students. Am J Health Behav 34(2): 214-24

Tenssay, F., Wang, H. 2019. Analysis of EEG signals during visual processing: An ERP Study. In IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing, Communications and Computing (ICSPCC): 16 Jan2020; IEEE: Dalian, China.

van Tricht, M.J., Harmsen, E.C., Koelman, J.H., Bour, L.J., van Amelsvoort, T.A., Linszen, D.H. et al. 2013. Effects of cannabis use on event related potentials in subjects at ultra-high risk for psychosis and healthy controls. Int J Psychophysiol 88(2): 149-56

Watson, T.D., Newton-Mora, M., Pirkle, J. 2016. Event-related potential correlates of processing alcohol-related pictures in young adult binge drinkers. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 42(1): 77-87.

Watson, T.D., Sweeney, J.F., Louis, H. 2014. Neurocognitive, psychological and behavioural correlates of binge drinking and use of alcohol with caffeinated beverages in college-aged adults. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 40(1): 58-66.

Weiss, B., Nguyen, T., Trung, L., Ngo, V., Lau, A. 2019. Tobacco smoking and antisocial deviance among Vietnamese, Vietnamese-American, and European-American adolescents. J Abnorm Child Psychol 47(1): 59-69.

Xu, H., Gu, L., Zhang, S., Wu, Y., Wei, X., Wang, C. et al. 2022. N200 and P300 component changes in Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis. Neurol Sci 43(12): 6719-30.

Yang, Q., Li, A., Xiao, X., Zhang, Y., Tian, X. 2014. Dissociation between morality and disgust: An event-related potential study. Int J Psychophysiol 94(1): 84-91.

Yin, J., Yuan, K., Feng, D., Cheng, J., Li, Y., Cai, C., Bi, Y., Sha, S., Shen, X., Zhang, B., Xue, T., Qin, W., Yu, D., Lu, X., Tian, J. 2016. Inhibition control impairments in adolescent smokers: Electrophysiological evidence from a Go/NoGo study. Brain Imaging Behav 10(2): 497-505

Yusoff, N., Shaharum, M.H., Kueh, Y.C. 2022. Malay version of moral identity scale: A cross-cultural validation in malaysian youth. IIUM Med J Malays 21(1): 854-9

Zhang, X., Guo, Q., Zhang, Y., Lou, L., Ding, D. 2015. Different timing features in brain processing of core and moral disgust pictures: An event-related potentials study. PLoS ONE 10(5): 1-15.



Aquino, K., Reed, A. 2002. The self-importance of moral identity. J Pers Soc Psychol 83(6): 1423-40.

Balconi, M., Vanutelli, M.E. 2016. Hemodynamic (fNIRS) and EEG (N200) correlates of emotional inter-species interactions modulated by visual and auditory stimulation. Scientific Reports 6(1): 23083

Buzzell, G.A., Fedota, J.R., Roberts, D.M., McDonald, C.G. 2014. The N2 ERP component as an index of impaired cognitive control in smokers. Neurosci Lett 563: 61-5.

Cao, D., Li, Y., Niznikiewicz, M.A. 2020. Neural characteristics of cognitive reappraisal success and failure: An ERP study. Brain Behav 10(4): 1033-41.

Conger, J.J. 1984. Adolescence and youth: Psychological development in a changing world. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row

Cowell, J.M., Decety, J. 2015. Precursors to morality in development as a complex interplay between neural, socioenvironmental, and behavioural facets. PNAS 112(41): 12657-62.

Davis, L. 1992. Instrument review: Getting the most from your panel of experts. Appl Nurs Res 5: 194-7.

DeCostera, J., Galluccib, M., Iselinc, A.R. 2011. Best practices for using median splits, artificial categorization, and their continuous alternatives. J Exp Psychopathol 2(2): 197-209

Dellantonio, S., Job, R. 2000. Moral intuitions vs. moral reasoning. A philosophical analysis of the explanatory models intuitionism relies on. In Philosophy and Cognitive Science. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics. Vol 2. Edited by Magnani L & Li P. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 732-86

Ding, Y., Guo, F., Hu, M.C., Cao, Y.Q. 2017. Using event related potentials to investigate visual aesthetic perception of product appearance. Hum Factors Ergon Manuf 27(5): 223-32.

Domino, E.F. 2003. Effects of tobacco smoking on electroencephalographic, auditory evoked and event related potentials. Brain Cogn 53(1): 66-74.

Dong, G., Yang, L., Hu, Y., Jiang, Y. 2009. Is N2 associated with successful suppression of behavior responses in impulse control processes? Neuroreport 20(6): 537-42

Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychol Rev 108(4): 814-34.

Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. 2013. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. New Jersey, USA: Pearson Prentice Hall

Hardy, S.A., Francis, S.W., Zamboanga, B.L., Kim, S.Y., Anderson, S.G., Forthun, L.F. 2013. The roles of identity formation and moral identity in college student mental health, health-risk behaviours, and psychological well-being. J Clin Psychol 69(4): 364-82.

Hong, B., Guo, F., Liu, T., Gao, X., Gao, S. 2009. N200-speller using motion-onset visual response. Clin Neurophysiol 120(9): 1658-66

Institute of Public Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia 2021. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Health Malaysia. http://iku.moh.gov.my/nhms-2006 [20 January 2023]

Jiang, S., Peng, M., Wang, X. 2020. Different influences of moral violation with and without physical impurity on face processing: An event-related potentials study. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0243929.

Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W.A., Shanklin, S.L., Flint, K.H., Queen, B. 2018. Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance - United States, 2017. MMWR Surveill Summ 67(8): 1-114.

Kanske, P., Kotz, S.A. 2010. Modulation of early conflict processing: N200 responses to emotional words in a flanker task. Neuropsychologia 48(12): 3661-4.

Katsuki, F., Constantinidis, C. 2014. Bottom-up and top-down attention: Different processes and overlapping neural systems. Neuroscientist 20(5): 509-21

Kaye, S.A., White, M.J., Lewis, I. 2018. Young females’ attention toward road safety images: An ERP study of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory. Traffic Inj Prev 19(2): 201-6.

Kunkel, A., Filik, R., Mackenzie, I.G., Leuthold, H. 2018. Task-dependent evaluative processing of moral and emotional content during comprehension: An ERP study. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 18(2): 389-409.

Li, X., Li, W., Chen, H., Cao, N., Zhao B. 2021. Cigarette-specific disgust aroused by smoking warning images strengthens smokers’ inhibitory control under smoking-related background in Go/NoGo task. Psychopharmacology 238(10): 2827-38.

Liu, C., Dong, F., Li, Y., Ren, Y., Xie, D., Wang, X., Xue, T., Zhang, M., Ren, G., von Deneen, K.M., Yuan, K., Yu, D. 2019. 12 h abstinence-induced erp changes in young smokers: electrophysiological evidence from a go/nogo study. Front Psychol 10: 1814.

Luijten, M., Kleinjan, M., Franken, I.H. 2016. Event-related potentials reflecting smoking cue reactivity and cognitive control as predictors of smoking relapse and resumption. Psychopharmacology 233(15-16): 2857-68.

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